Thursday, November 20, 2008
Wednesday, September 24, 2008
Tuesday, September 9, 2008
Creative Church Welcomes
SALES SALES APARTMENTS UNDER CONSTRUCTION IMPROVEMENTS
APARTMENT FOR SALE IN URB. NEW NAGUA
Cabrera II Residential
Product:
- 3 Bedroom, Room, Labado area, Closet, Kitchen, Dining, Pantry, Gas Tank Area and Investor Cisterna, Standing Water, Intercon, electric gate, 2 Parking, Green Area, Stair, Front and Back.
RD $ 3,500,000
___________________________________________
APARTMENT FOR SALE IN URB. NEW NAGUA
Nagua Residential New Product
:
- 3 Bedroom, Room, Labado area, Closet, Kitchen, Dining, Pantry, Gas Tank Area and Investor, Tanker, Standing water, Intercon, electric gate, 2 Parking, Green Area, Stair, Front and Back, 160mt2 of construction.
Price:
RD $ 3,500,000
_________________________________________
; Apartment rentals in New Nagua Res
2 Bedrooms, Living Room, Kitchen, Dining room, 1 bathroom, balcony with view Sea, marquee for 2 Vehicles
___________________________________________
APARTMENT FOR SALE IN URB. NEW NAGUA
Cabrera II Residential
Product:
- 3 Bedroom, Room, Labado area, Closet, Kitchen, Dining, Pantry, Gas Tank Area and Investor Cisterna, Standing Water, Intercon, electric gate, 2 Parking, Green Area, Stair, Front and Back.
RD $ 3,500,000
___________________________________________
Nagua Residential New Product
:
- 3 Bedroom, Room, Labado area, Closet, Kitchen, Dining, Pantry, Gas Tank Area and Investor, Tanker, Standing water, Intercon, electric gate, 2 Parking, Green Area, Stair, Front and Back, 160mt2 of construction.
Price:
RD $ 3,500,000
_________________________________________
2 Bedrooms, Living Room, Kitchen, Dining room, 1 bathroom, balcony with view Sea, marquee for 2 Vehicles
___________________________________________
Urb Hilario
Sales & Rental Apartments
3 Bedrooms with glass closet, 2 rooms, kitchen, dining room, 2 bathrooms, 1 Marqucina.
___________________________________________
Urb Emma Balaguer
Apartment Sale at Km 3
Type:
A: RD $ 1,400,000 3 Habits., Cervicio room, 2 parking, Term. in A.
B: RD $ 800.000 3 Bedrooms, 2 parking, Term. in B.
C: RD $ 500.000 3 Bedrooms, 2 parking
Sunday, September 7, 2008
Monday, March 17, 2008
Free Online Pokemon Episodes
caculo and budget of a solar electrical installation
Solar photovoltaics
Location: palms
rated working voltage: 24 v
Consumption:
airtime
Summer Winter
2 rooms had 20w 1hr/day 1hr/day
1 living room w 5h/día had 20 3h/day
1 kitchen w had 20 2h 1hr/day
2 wc had 10 w 1hr/day 1hr/day
1 garage had 15 w 1hr/day 1hr/day
3 tv 20 2h / w 1hr/day
daily consumption in winter
2 x 20 wx 40wh/dia
1hr/day = 1 x 20 wx 5h/dia = 100 wh / day
1 x 20 wx 2h = 40 Wh / day
2 x 10 wx 1 h / day = 20 Wh / day
1 x 15 wx 1 h / day = 15 Wh / day
3 x 20 wx 2 h / day = 120 Wh /
day in summer daily consumption
2 x 20 wx 1hr/day = 40 wh / day
1 x 20 wx 3 h / day = 60 Wh / day
1 x 20 wx 1 h / day = 20 wh /
day 2 x 10 wx 1 h / day = 20 Wh / day
1 x 15 wx 1 h / day = 15 Wh / day
3 x 20 wx 1 h / day = 60 Wh / day
In winter
40 + 100 + 40 x 20 +15 + 120 / 24 v = 13'95 Ah
Oversized load by 25% to offset losses
13'95 x 13'95 + ah 25/100 = 17 ' 43 Ah
calculated the total intensity
17'43 / 4'3 = 4'05 A
estimated the number of panels required taking the I-100/24 \u200b\u200b
4'05 / 2'8 = 1'60 SERIOUS = 2 PANELS
Summer
40 + 60 + 20 + 20 + 15 + 60 / 24 v = 8'95 Ah
Oversized load by 25% to offset losses
8'95 Ah + 11'18 8'95 x 25/100 = Ah
calculate the total intensity
11'18 / 4'3 = 2'6 A
calculate the number of panels required taking the I-100/24 \u200b\u200b
2'6 / 2'8 = 0'92 = 1 PANEL WOULD
Aunq NOS WINTER OF COMPUTING PANEL TWO WILL ECHO IN CALCULATING THE SUMMER SEASON
budget
Photovoltaic Solar Panel 240W CE, ISO MONO 
Solar photovoltaics
Location: palms
rated working voltage: 24 v
Consumption:
airtime
Summer Winter
2 rooms had 20w 1hr/day 1hr/day
1 living room w 5h/día had 20 3h/day
1 kitchen w had 20 2h 1hr/day
2 wc had 10 w 1hr/day 1hr/day
1 garage had 15 w 1hr/day 1hr/day
3 tv 20 2h / w 1hr/day
daily consumption in winter
2 x 20 wx 40wh/dia
1hr/day = 1 x 20 wx 5h/dia = 100 wh / day
1 x 20 wx 2h = 40 Wh / day
2 x 10 wx 1 h / day = 20 Wh / day
1 x 15 wx 1 h / day = 15 Wh / day
3 x 20 wx 2 h / day = 120 Wh /
day in summer daily consumption
2 x 20 wx 1hr/day = 40 wh / day
1 x 20 wx 3 h / day = 60 Wh / day
1 x 20 wx 1 h / day = 20 wh /
day 2 x 10 wx 1 h / day = 20 Wh / day
1 x 15 wx 1 h / day = 15 Wh / day
3 x 20 wx 1 h / day = 60 Wh / day
In winter
40 + 100 + 40 x 20 +15 + 120 / 24 v = 13'95 Ah
Oversized load by 25% to offset losses
13'95 x 13'95 + ah 25/100 = 17 ' 43 Ah
calculated the total intensity
17'43 / 4'3 = 4'05 A
estimated the number of panels required taking the I-100/24 \u200b\u200b
4'05 / 2'8 = 1'60 SERIOUS = 2 PANELS
Summer
40 + 60 + 20 + 20 + 15 + 60 / 24 v = 8'95 Ah
Oversized load by 25% to offset losses
8'95 Ah + 11'18 8'95 x 25/100 = Ah
calculate the total intensity
11'18 / 4'3 = 2'6 A
calculate the number of panels required taking the I-100/24 \u200b\u200b
2'6 / 2'8 = 0'92 = 1 PANEL WOULD
Aunq NOS WINTER OF COMPUTING PANEL TWO WILL ECHO IN CALCULATING THE SUMMER SEASON
budget
Photovoltaic Solar Panel 240W CE, ISO MONO
monocrystalline photovoltaic panels at top quality.
CE and manufactured according to ISO. Cells x 2 panels € 691.20 = € 1382'4
PS-15M
ProStar Solar Controller 15A 12/24V
ProStar Solar Controller 15A 12/24V
display and parallel to 300A: € 218.90
current converter 12v to 220v € 70.00
Monobloc Batteries Model: FS-200 € 378
current converter 12v to 220v € 70.00
Monobloc Batteries Model: FS-200 € 378
Monday, March 10, 2008
Cover Paper With Shellac
Photovoltaics:
Solar
Elements of a solar photovoltaic
Applications of PV solar energy
calculation of solar photovoltaic installations
History and fundamentals of photovoltaic solar cells
cells and photovoltaic panels
Accumulators Charge Regulators
Other equipment for use in photovoltaic system
support structure for photovoltaic panels
calculation of a facility maintenance
a photovoltaic system and operation
Photovoltaic grid-connected
Bibliography
Solar
A guaranteed power for the next 6,000 million years
The Sun, source of life and origin of other forms of energy that man has used since the dawn of history, can meet all our needs if you learn how to make a rational light continually pours on the planet. Has shone in the sky for about five billion years, and is estimated to have not yet reached even half of its existence.
This year, the sun casts on the earth four thousand times more energy than we consume.
Spain, for its privileged location and climate, is particularly favored compared to other European countries, as on every square meter of land per year affecting about 1,500 kilowatt-hours of energy, similar to that of many regions of Central and South America. This energy can be used directly or be converted into other useful forms, for example, into electricity.
would not be rational not to try to exploit, by all means technically possible, this free energy source, clean and renewable, it can definitely get rid of dependence on oil or other unsafe alternatives, pollutants or, simply, exhaustible.
It should, however, noted that there are some problems that we face and overcome. Apart from the difficulties that would lead to advanced solar energy policy itself must be borne in mind that this power is subject to continuous fluctuations and more or less abrupt. For example, solar radiation is lower in winter, usually just when they most need.
is vital to continuing the development of the emerging technology of capture, accumulation and distribution of solar energy, to create conditions that make it definitely competitive on a global scale.
Elements of a solar photovoltaic
ConduccionesEl calo carrier fluid must be transported in the plant at a certain speed because if you go too fast will not heat up very slow and if you reach undesirable temperatures, so you have to calculate the size of the pipes. To do this, there should be speed limits (1.2 l / s * eg - 1.6 l / sec. 100 m2 of collector area) and a loss limit of carga.El material of choice should be the metal most possible noble (copper), but big, it will be used other than price such as steel or aluminum. In case of several metals coexist in the same facility, the water should range from less noble to the most noble electrolisis.Con the problem of plastics, the most enduring is the cross-linked polyethylene (100 ° C a few hours), so it is not advisable to use in the circuit primario.Para calculate the flow rule follows: Between 1.2 100m2. After the / h would be between 43 l / h and 57 l / h, * l / sec. and 1.6 l / sec. Taking the purposes of calculating the intermediate value of 50 l / hAislamientoEvita loss of the sensitive elements of the installation, you must have a low coefficient of conductivity at a reasonable price. Their placement will be simple and support a wide range of temperatures. Must be non-flammable, non-corrosive on contact and provide good stability. His strength is good and his weight reducido.Puede be type fibrous (asbestos, fiberglass, mineral wool, animal and plant fiber), granular (perlite, and calcium silicate, magnesia) and cellular (cork, foam glass). The thickness is chosen according to the temperature of the fluid and the diameter of the pipe, also depending on whether the pipes are internal or calculate elementosPara exteriores.Otros facilities must take into account a volume of 50 l / h * m2, speed is 2 m / sec. (3 m / sec. In certain circumstances) and Ap = 40 mm.ca / mo The gauge and hydrometer - Measure the pressure inside a pipe or depósito.o safety valve - must be included for the circuit under pressure variations and funnel drain temperatura.o - Lets see the evacuation of líquido.o The trap - Evacuate the gases contained in the fluid carrier calo and must be on the top of the check valves instalación.o - Limit the flow of fluid in one step sentido.o valves - can interrupt all or part of the step fluido.o the Thermometer - Measure the temperature of the fluid by contact or by inmersión.o thermostats - Measure and activated or deactivated by a signal mechanisms eléctrica.o The differential thermostat - Measure temperature difference and acting as role on something in the system
Applications of solar photovoltaic installations Small
residential lighting (exterior and interior).
Pumping water from wells or irrigation autonomous.
installations where housing is more economically viable to deploy a standalone installation that connect to the overall network, usually far away from it.
calculation of solar photovoltaic installations
History and fundamentals of photovoltaic solar cells seems
unless Photoelectric phenomena have the beginning of its discovery in 1808, through Hallwachs, but it was Hertz who outlined the basic principles governing them. In 1887
latter noted that the spark jumps more easily between two different areas of potential when their surfaces were strongly illuminated by the light of another shock, and later found that a negatively charged zinc plate and connected to an electroscope, lost load quickly when illuminated by an arc. In all Hertz concluded that, under the action of light, zinc, and in general all metals are negatively charged,
results experimental obtained were as follows:
The photoelectric effect is instantaneous, ie no radiation appears retardation.
The number of photoelectrons emitted, ie the intensity of the current produced is proportional to the radiation received.
On the speed issue has no influence on light intensity, or its polarization state, but their frequency or wavelength.
For each metal there is a minimum frequency of light radiation, below which no-show the photoelectric effect.
The theoretical interpretation of these events was mortality from Einstein in 1902, generalizing the hypothesis Plank made by a few years before the theory of quanta or photons.
photoelectric cells are devices based on the action of light radiation on certain metal surfaces. The effect of such radiation can be of three types:
fotoemisivo or fotoexterno effect: in the metal causes a burst of electrons with their release. Photoconductive or fotointerno
Effect: changes the electrical conductivity of metal.
Photovoltaic effect: it creates an electromotive force in metal.
precisely in this last section is where they are integrated photovoltaic cells that generate a flow of current proportional to the luminous flux received. These cells have the advantage over other types that do not require auxiliary power or vacuum, why are not used for converting solar energy into electrical energy.
Chapin, and bellows Perarson in 1954 developed the first solar cell capable of converting, in an effective manner, sunlight into electricity. Since then, the devices have been improved especially in the use in artificial satellites, and feed small houses in remote locations.
photovoltaic cells and modules
photovoltaic or solar photovoltaic (sometimes called solar , although this term also includes other devices) are formed by a group of cells ( photovoltaic cells) that produce electricity from light that strikes them . The maximum power that can supply a module called peak power.
The photovoltaic panels are divided into:
Monocrystalline: made up of sections of a single crystal silicon (recognizable by their round or hexagonal). Polycrystalline
, where small particulate consist crystallized.
Amorphous silicon when has not been crystallized.
Its effectiveness is greater the larger are the crystals, but also its weight, thickness and cost. The first performance can reach 20% while that of the past can not reach 1%, however its cost and weight is much lower.
Accumulators
Called electric battery, electric battery or just battery, the device that stores electrical energy using electrochemical methods and then returns almost entirely, this cycle can be repeated for a certain number of times. This is a secondary electric generator; ie, a generator can not operate without electricity previously supplied him with what is called charging.
also often called battery as many times several of them are connected in series to increase the supply voltage. Thus, a car battery is made internally by 6 elements accumulator lead-acid type, each of which supplies electricity at a voltage of about 2 V, so that all the usual 12 V supply, or 12 items at 24 V for trucks.
The term battery, in Castilian, called the non-rechargeable power generators. Both battery and battery are terms from the early days of electricity, in which several cells or cells - in the first case, one above another, "stacked", and the second, attached laterally, "on battery", as is still done today, order to increase the magnitude of electrical phenomena and to study them systematically. This explanation suggests that either serve to any names, but the custom has fixed the distinction.
Charge Regulators
range ATERSA regulation is based on digital technology, incorporating different levels of load and state relays solid. Optionally at the customer can be supplied in sealed boxes also blocking diode.
• All models are dual voltage (12 and 24V).
LEO
· The models have two ammeters and voltmeter and can be programmed by the user or installer. Leo2 models also lead-free relays for starting voltage generator and transmitted alarms.
• The MP has been designed to provide a system of regulation and control facilities of medium and high power, with digital measurement of key parameters.
• The data acquisition system DATASOL-32 is designed specifically for track use as photovoltaic power system control information mP-60. The joint facility and DATASOL mP-32, provides the benefits of a data acquisition system in a simple and low cost.
Other equipment for use in photovoltaic system
exists in the photovoltaic market a variety of makes and models of modules solares.Según the type of material used to manufacture, are classified as monocrystalline silicon modules : they are the most widely used due to its high reliability and durability, but its price is slightly higher than other types. • polycrystalline silicon modules: they are slightly cheaper than monocrystalline silicon modules, but its efficiency is lower. • amorphous silicon modules, are less efficient than the previous 2, but a much lower price. They are also thinner and lighter, made in a flexible manner, so that can be installed as an integral part of a roof or wall.
support structure for photovoltaic panels
A solar panel is made up of several cells connected electrically equal to each other, in series and / or in parallel, so that the voltage and current supplied by the panel is increased to meet value desired. Most solar panels are constructed first associating cells in series to achieve the desired voltage level, and then combining several parallel series of cell associations to achieve the desired current level. In addition, the panel has other elements of the solar cells, which allow adequate protection of the brake assembly to external agents, ensuring sufficient stiffness, allowing the subject to the structures that support and connecting eléctrica.Estos elements are: - Cover the Sun is facing glass should give the maximum transmission of solar radiation. It is characterized by its mechanical strength, high transmissivity and low iron .- encapsulant. Most often silicone or EVA (ethylene-vinyl acetate). It is especially important not to be affected in its transparency by continued exposure to the sun, seeking also a refractive index similar to the protective glass to avoid altering the conditions of the incident radiation protection .- later. Should also provide rigidity and a great protection against the weather. Shaped blades are usually used for different layers of materials of different characteristics .- Metal frame. Aluminium, which ensures enough rigidity and sealing the whole, incorporating the elements of the structure subject to outside panel. The bond between the metal frame and the elements that make up the module is done through different types of systems resistant to working conditions .- panel wiring and connection terminals. Common in electrical systems, protected from the elements by means of boxes .- watertight protection diode. Its mission is to protect against overloads or deterioration of operating conditions panel.Los Solar Panel have between 28 and 40 cells, although the most typical is to have 36. The surface of the panel or module can vary between 0.1 and 0.5m2 and has two output terminals, positive and negative, sometimes have to put some intermediate protección.Normalmente diodes, panels used, are designed to work in combination with multiple battery voltages of 12V, as discussed in the section devoted to the accumulator.
Calculation of
installation cost of the installation (with expenses) for 1 kWp VAT €
Point
possible subsidies for 1 kWp
€
years
Life Energy produced (by 1 kWp in Madrid)
kWh/1kWp
external capital value
% Interest for external capital
% equity interest for
% per year maintenance and insurance
%
Rental measuring equipment / year €
Point
the unplanned maintenance costs in the first year of operation (without VAT = additional external capital)
€
contribution obligation exists VAT (if = 1, no = 1.16) You get
payment to cover the cost of the project:
€ / kWh
Factsheet:
Point power project installed in kWp
total investment calculation for your project without interest calculation
€
total grants for the project
€
Calculation of entries per year for the sale of energy (the installation> 1kWp)
maintenance and operation of a photovoltaic
A photovoltaic system does not appropriately sized problems, and only maintenance is regular review of the equipment according to manufacturer's instructions. The damage, if used correctly, are extremely rare, and weather conditions, normal-storms, hail-usual dimensions not affect them.
Photovoltaic installations connected to the mains
The direct conversion of solar energy into electricity through photovoltaic cells has been developed in recent years as a alternative to power in several countries. And on the occasions where the power supply for conventional network already exists, the tendency is that the photovoltaic cells work with her.
Initially, photovoltaic systems developer network connection for large PV plants. Since it was thought that in the future could be resolved in some areas certain problems in the generation and distribution of conventional energy. After considering that these plants were working properly and, as advanced electronics market began to design smaller systems. Smaller, more manageable systems with intended to be installed as a small domestic plants. Completely customizable solar systems to homes equipped with conventional power rush.
The first photovoltaic plant connected to the network in Europe (9.3 kWp. 13/05/1982 Lugano School of Engineering) is constructed to study the effects of electrical safety that could occur when connecting a facility of this type to the network public. At the end of 1998 there were over 30,000 photovoltaic grid-connected distributed throughout the world.
Today there is a clear institutional support for photovoltaic technology. A good example is found in the reading of energy for the future, sources renewable energy (White Paper on a strategy and a community action plan. European Commission). Showing the articulation of a campaign to help real takeoff of renewable energy. The European Commission regarding proposed photovoltaic encourage the introduction of a million solar systems.
A campaign in order to build a sufficiently large market for manufacturing costs fall substantially. Launch a program to protect the domestic market and export promotion. To this end, the campaign organized an initiative includes the installation of 500,000 PV systems connected to the grid and for within the EU internal market. To complete it, including an export of 500,000 initiative autonomous photovoltaic systems in developing countries.
energy policy is not an oracle, and the prospects are not forecasts but reflections on the range of possible futures. Taking the latter into account and if all goes according to plans operating in the U.S., Japan and Europe, it is possible to reach 2010 with over 1,000,000 photovoltaic installations connected to the grid in many countries. If we add to this figure autonomous photovoltaic installations in the next decade will be a solar market that will have a volume greater than 2.5 billion. Operation
A photovoltaic system networking is a type of electrical installation that involves five elements:
solar energy.
A group of photovoltaic modules conveniently connected, and located so that they receive the most sunlight over the year.
The PV inverter for grid connection.
electrical protections.
The electrical network.
The operating principle is very simple:
solar energy falls on the photovoltaic generator.
Solar modules generate DC electricity.
The current, which provides photovoltaic solar generator, passes through the electrical protection and is delivered directly to the heart of an investor. Inverter control is connected to the solar generator and network.
PV inverter connected to the network is responsible for providing sinusoidal alternating current, from the current energy supplied by photovoltaic modules. The energy delivery this inverter is synchronized with the existing supply network.
This energy, if not consumed in the same place where you are installing is injected in frequency and phase to the existing electrical distribution lines. This way is available to other consumers.
and solar system operation is done completely automatically mind, both for its launch to its stop:
At dawn, the system control devices measure the power available from the photovoltaic generator. Once the minimum level of operation, the inverter and power generation starts.
At night when it detects a power level below the minimum generator with which it can operate, the unit is switched to a new dawn. Bibliography
http://www.censolar.org/menu2.htm
http://www.enbuenasmanos.com/articulos/muestra.asp?art=1558
http://www.web.iesbajoaragon.com/framos/solar1.doc
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_fotovoltaico
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acumulador_el%C3%A9ctrico
http://www.atersa.com/763.0.html
http://www.ujaen.es/investiga/solar/07cursosolar/home_main_frame/04_componen/01_generador/01_basico/4_gene_01.htm
http://energia-solar-si.blogspot.com/
http://news.soliclima.com/?seccio=noticiesprof&accio=veure&id=51
http://www.robotiker.com/revista/articulo.do;jsessionid=EE3D092DEBFB2747509DACF422E4830A?method=detalle&id=31
Thursday, February 28, 2008
Fleas On Dogs Stomach
panels capture solar energy or convert energy from sunlight. In all cases, the daily consumption and the generation of a solar system, it is energy, not "power."
watch the next page:
http://www.codeso.com/Calculo01A.html
Tuesday, February 26, 2008
Racquel Darrian Raquel On Fire
solar battery solar electric
car accumulator. Called
battery, electric battery or just battery, the device that stores electrical energy using electrochemical methods and then returns almost entirely, this cycle can be repeated by a number of times. This is a secondary electric generator, ie a generator can not operate without electricity previously supplied him with what is called charging.
also often called battery as many times several of them are connected in series to increase the supply voltage. Thus, a car battery is made internally by 6 elements accumulator lead-acid type, each of which supplies electricity at a voltage of about 2 V, so that all the usual 12 V supply, or 12 items at 24 V for trucks.
The term battery in Castilian, called the non-rechargeable power generators. Both battery and battery are terms from the early days of electricity, in which several cells or cells - in the first case, one above another, "stacked", and the second, attached laterally, "on battery" , as is done today in order to increase the magnitude of electrical phenomena and to study them systematically. This explanation suggests that either serve to any names, but the custom has fixed the distinction. Contents
Operating Principles of Operation battery is based essentially on some sort of reversible process, ie a process whose components are not consumed or lost result, but merely transformed into another, which in turn can return to the state first in the right circumstances. These circumstances are, in the case of batteries, the closure of the external circuit during the discharge process and the implementation of a stream, just outside during the load.
turns out that such processes are quite common, oddly enough, in the relations between the chemicals and electricity during the process called electrolysis , and voltage generators or batteries . The nineteenth century researchers devoted many efforts to observe and investigate this phenomenon, which was named polarization.
An accumulator is thus a device that takes the polarization achievable limits, and generally consists of two electrodes the same or different material, immersed in an electrolyte . History
Alessandro Volta announced his invention of the stack to the Royal London Society, March 20 of 1800. Johann Wilhelm Ritter
built his electric battery 1803. Like many other that followed, was a theoretical and experimental prototype, with no possible practical application.
In 1860 , Gaston Plante developed the first model of lead-acid battery with pretensions to be a usable device, which was only very relatively, so it was not successful. In the late nineteenth century, however, the electricity was rapidly becoming everyday items, and when I planted again to publicly explain the features of your store, in 1879 , had a better reception, so it began to be manufactured and used almost immediately, beginning an intense and ongoing process of development to perfect it and ignore its deficiencies, a process that continues today.
Thomas Alva Edison invented in 1900 , another type of battery with electrodes of iron and nickel, whose electrolyte is potassium hydroxide (KOH). First commercialized in 1908 , and are the basis of current models alkaline rechargeable or not.
Also by 1900, in Sweden, Berg invented Junger and Ni-Cd battery, which uses cadmium anodes instead of iron, being very similar to that of ferronickel in other characteristics.
battery types
As their size and other characteristics external concerns, consult this list , since many of them are common to batteries and accumulators and are standardized.
As far as concerns their internal nature, are commonly found in trade accumulators of the following types:
lead accumulator is composed of two electrodes lead, so that when the device is downloaded , is in the form of lead sulfate (PbSO4 II) embedded in a matrix of metallic lead (Pb), the electrolyte is a solution of sulfuric acid . This type of battery is still used even in many applications, including in the car. Its operation is as follows:
During the initial charging, lead sulfate (II) is reduced to lead metal at the negative pole, while the anode forms lead oxide (IV) (Pb O2) . Therefore, it is a dismutation process . No hydrogen is released, since the reduction of protons to elemental hydrogen is kinetically hindered at a lead surface, a favorable characteristic is reinforced by including the small amounts of silver electrodes. Hydrogen evolution would cause slow degradation of the electrode, helping it crumble mechanically parts of it, irreversible changes that shorten the battery service life.
During discharge processes are reversed loading. Lead oxide (IV) is reduced to lead sulfate (II), while the elemental lead is oxidized to sulfate also give lead (II). Exploit the electrons exchanged in the form of electrical current through an external circuit. It is, therefore, of a switch. The term commences elementary processes are:
PbO2 + 2 H2SO4 + 2 e--> 2 H2O + SO42-
PbSO4 + Pb + SO42--> PbSO4 + 2 e-
low discharge in the concentration of sulfuric acid because it creates lead sulphate and increases the amount of water released in the reaction. As concentrated sulfuric acid has a density greater than the dilute sulfuric acid, the acid density can be an indicator for charging status of the device.
However, this process can be repeated indefinitely, because when the lead sulfate crystals form very large, and not respond well to the processes outlined, so you lose the essential characteristic of reversibility. We then say that the battery is sulfated and must be replaced by a new one.
The batteries of this type sold today use a paste electrolyte, which does not evaporate and does a lot more comfortable and safer to use.
Alkaline Battery
ferronickel also called, the electrodes are shaped steel plates with honeycomb mesh inserts nickel oxide (NiO), which form the positive electrode, and ferrous oxide (FeO), the negative, being formed the electrolyte solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH). During the load is an anodic oxidation process and a cathodic reduction , becoming the nickel oxide in nickel and ferrous oxide in metallic iron. This reaction occurs in reverse during unloading.
In 1866, George Leclanché invented in France the "stack dry "(Zinc-Manganese Dioxide) system that still dominates the world market for primary batteries. Alkaline batteries (for "high power" or "long life") are similar to those of Leclanché, but instead of ammonium chloride, lead chloride, sodium or potassium. They last longer because zinc is not exposed to an acidic environment such as ammonium ions that cause the conventional battery. As the ions move more easily through the electrolyte, produces more power and a more stable flow.
The higher cost stems from the difficulty of sealing the cell against leakage of hydroxide. Almost all are shielded, which prevents the shedding of constituents. However, this shield does not have unlimited time. Alkaline dry cells are similar to common dry cells, with the following exceptions:
the electrolyte is basic (alkaline), because it contains KOH
the inner surface of the container of Zn is rough, this provides a larger contact area.
Alkaline batteries have a longer shelf life than the common dry cells to better withstand constant use.
voltage alkaline battery is close to 1.5 v. During unloading, the reactions in the alkaline dry cell are:
Anode: Zn (S) + 2 OH-(aq) Zn (OH) 2 (s) +2 e-
Cathode: 2 MnO2 (S) + 2 H2 O (l) + 2 e- 2MnO (OH) (s) + 2 OH-(ac)
Global: Zn (s) +2 MnO2 (s) 2H2O (l) Zn (OH) 2 (aq) + 2MnO (OH) (s)
The anode is made of a paste of zinc amalgamated with mercury (total 1%), carbon or graphite.
devices are used for complex and energy intensive. In versions 1.5 volt, 6 volt and 12 volts are used, for example, remote controls (remote control) and alarms.
alkaline manganese batteries with mercury content of around 0.1% of its total weight is an enhanced version of the previous stack, which has replaced the chloride ion conductor ammonium hydroxide Potassium (hence the name of alkaline). The battery container is steel, and disposition of zinc and manganese oxide (IV) is the opposite, placing the zinc powder now in the middle. The amount of mercury used to regulate the discharge is higher. This gives more time, more constancy in time and better performance. By contrast, the price is higher. It also provides an electromotive force of 1.5 V. It is used in most consumer devices such as portable recorders, motorized toys, electronic flashes.
The amalgamated zinc anode is the cathode material is a polarizer that is based on manganese dioxide, mercuric oxide intimately mixed with graphite, and in rare cases Ag2O silver oxide (the latter two are of use expensive, hazardous and toxic), to reduce its electrical resistivity. The electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH), which presents a very low internal resistance, allowing not to take internal discharges and energy can be stored for a long time. This electrolyte in the battery business is hardened gelatin or cellulose derivatives.
This type of battery is manufactured in two ways. In one, the anode consists of a corrugated zinc strip, spirally wound from 0.051 to 0.13 mm in thickness, which is Amalgam after assembly. Two strips absorbent paper interdevanadas alkali resistant paper strip with zinc, zinc so that it extends to the top and bottom paper. The anode is insulated from the metal box with a polystyrene sleeve. The top of the stack is made of copper and makes contact with the strip of zinc to form the negative terminal of the battery. The battery is sealed with a grommet or eyelet made of neoprene. The battery casing is chemically inert to the ingredients and form the positive electrode.
Alkaline Zinc 14% (anode) Toys, tape players, cameras, recorders
22% manganese dioxide (cathode)
Coal: 2%
Mercury 0.5 to 1% (anode)
potassium hydroxide (electrolyte)
42% plastic and sheet
contains an alkaline compound called potassium hydroxide. Its duration is six times greater than that of zinc-carbon. It is composed of manganese dioxide, potassium hydroxide, zinc paste amalgamated with Mercury (total 1%), carbon or graphite. According to the European Directive of March 18, 1991, these batteries can not exceed the amount of 0.025% mercury.
This type of battery has some cons:
An alkaline battery can contaminate 175,000 liters of water, which becomes the average water consumption of all the lives of six people.
An ordinary battery, also called zinc-carbon, can contaminate 3,000 liters of water.
nasal septum perforations.
Zinc, Manganese, Bismuth, Copper and Silver: These are toxic substances that produce various alterations in human health. Zinc, Manganese and Copper are essential for life, in minute amounts, toxic in high doses. Bismuth and Silver are not essential for life.
Nickel Hydride Batteries (Ni-H)
utilize a hydroxide anode and cathode nickel alloy metal-hydride batteries. Each cell of Ni-H can provide a voltage of 1.2 V and a capacity between 0.8 and 2.3 Ah. Its energy density reaches 80 Wh / kg. These batteries are affected by the so-called memory effect, which is limited in each charging voltage or the capacity (because of a long, high temperature or high current), precluding the use of all its energy.
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries (Ni-Cd)
They use a nickel hydroxide anode and cathode of a compound of cadmium . The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide . This configuration of materials can recharge the battery once it is exhausted, for reuse. Each NiCd cell can provide a voltage of 1.2 V and a capacity between 0.5 and 2.3 Ah. No However, its energy density is only 50 Wh / kg, which means they have to be recharged every so often. They are also affected by memory effect.
Lithium-Ion Battery (Li-ion) batteries
The Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) use a lithium anode and a cathode Ion. Its development is more recent, and can reach densities of around 115 Wh / kg. Also, do not suffer from memory effect .
Lithium Polymer Batteries (Li-Poly)
are a variation of Lithium-Ion Battery (Li-ion) . Its characteristics are very similar, but allow higher energy density and a significantly higher discharge rate.
Fuel Cells
The fuel cell is not an accumulator itself, although it converts chemical energy into electricity and is rechargeable. Works with hydrogen . (Other fuels such as methane or Methanol are processed prior to hydrogen).
high capacity condenser
Although high-capacity capacitors electrochemical batteries are not strictly speaking, are now getting enough capacity large (several farads, F) so that they can be used as a battery when the power supplied are small.
parameters of a battery voltage
The or potential (in volts ) is the first parameter to consider, as is what usually determines whether the accumulator should use to which it is intended. Is fixed by the reduction potential of redox couple used, generally between 1 V and 4 V per cell.
The current that can supply the item, as ampere (A), is the second factor. Is particularly important in some cases the maximum current obtainable; p. eg., starter motors for cars require brutal efforts of the battery when put into operation (tens of A), so you must act for a short time.
electrical capacity is measured in practice by reference to the time of loading and discharge in Ah. SI unit is the coulomb (C).
1 Ah = 1000 mAh = 3600 C, 1 C = 1 Ah/3600 = 0.278 mAh.
Note, however, that, when you get indications on the body of batteries or packs, as Please charge at C/10 for 12 hours the letter C does not refer to Coulomb, but maximum load may receive the battery, so that in the previous case, if they were battery capacity 1200 mAh, you should apply a charging current = 120 mA during 1200-1210 the number of hours indicated.
The stored energy is usually measured in Wh ( watt-hour), the SI unit is the joule (unit) .
1 Wh = 3600 J = 3.6 kJ 1 J = 0.278 mWh
The resistance of the batteries is much lower than that of the batteries, allowing them to supply loads more intense than the latter, especially as transient. For example, the internal resistance of a lead-acid battery is of 0.006 ohm , and other Ni-Cd, from 0.009 ohm.
Finally, another important feature of a battery is its mass, ie, weighing, and the relationship between it and the electrical capacity (Ah / kg) or energy (Wh / kg) that can restore. In some cases it may also occupy a significant volume (m3 or liters).
The yield is the percentage ratio between the power received in the process of loading and delivery to the battery during discharge. The lead-acid battery is rated at over 90%.
batteries as contaminants
As seen, the batteries contain heavy metals and chemicals, many of them harmful environment. It is very important not to throw them away (in most countries this is not allowed) and take them to a recycling center. Currently, most vendors and specialty shops are also in charge of the batteries.
In Mexico, the release of mercury in batteries has occurred as a result of using three types of batteries: the oxide of mercury, the C-Zn and alkaline. In the first type, the metal content is 33% and were used in presentation and in other button sizes, from 1955. Theoretically, it ceased production in 1995, although there are sources that indicate that this process continues in Asia and distributed in the international market. For the second and third types of batteries, it is known that for several decades before 1990, they added mercury (0.5 to 1.2%) for best performance, with the highest alkaline content, also containing coal is sometimes contaminated with this metal naturally. In 1999, the INE requested an analysis of samples from three different brands of AA batteries normally consumed in Mexico, of which two were of Asian origin (of C-Zn) and alkaline European origin. The results were as follows: for those of Asian origin, the values \u200b\u200bwere between 0.18 mg / kg and 6.42 mg / kg, in terms of European origin the result was 0.66 mg / kg, and these amounts, equivalent to parts per million, does not exceed the limits of 0.025% under the Protocol on heavy metals taken in 1998 in Aarhus, Denmark, by members of the Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The previous sample was an isolated incident and it would be in the future to further analyze the mercury content in the largest possible number of brands. According to calculations presented in Table 10, an estimated 1,232 tons have been released over the past 43 years. In Mexico, the other sources of mercury are industry chlorine / soda, which is used in the process, and also products such as thermometers, various types of switches and fluorescent lamps. According to official information and is not removed mercury in Mexico, although data on imports amounting to 130 tonnes in the last three years. Mercury is a local and global pollutant par excellence. Environmental chemistry for this toxic metal is very complex, given its properties, it evaporates at room temperature, the atoms travel far, to be deposited in bodies of water are transformed into organic mercury (methyl mercury) for aerobic and anaerobic mechanisms , this is how it becomes contaminated, among others, seafood. Another form of mercury poisoning is inhalation of vapors from the mercury in its metallic form indoors. Methyl mercury can cross the placenta, accumulate and cause damage to the brain and tissues of infants who are particularly sensitive to this substance. There may also be exposed to mercury through breast milk, in this case, the effects can cause developmental problems, delays in walking, speech or mental lack of coordination, blindness and seizures. In adults, chronic exposure through ingestion of contaminated food, usually fish, can cause personality changes, loss of vision, memory or coordination, deafness, or problems in the kidneys and lungs. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, for its acronym in English) of the World Health Organization (WHO) considers to methyl mercury and its compounds as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). Methyl mercury, which is the most toxic, accumulates in fish tissue, the larger specimens and older tend to concentrate higher levels of mercury.
Manganese: As the most used battery types are alkaline and C-Zn (approximately 76% of total batteries), the oxide manganese content in them is the pollutant that increased volume has been released into the environment over the past four decades, which is about 145.917 tons (Table 10). Regarding adverse effects on human health caused by this substance, several studies suggest serious neurological effects from oral exposure to manganese. For example, a study by the WHO reports that in 1981 poisoning was reported in a community in Japan, due to near a water well were buried around 400 pieces of batteries at a distance of approximately two meters, causing 16 cases of poisoning, three were fatal (including suicide). Manganese levels detected in water from that well was 14 milligrams per liter, while in other two wells reached levels 8 and 11 milligrams per liter. Community subjects exhibited disorders of psychological and neurological related to intoxication. 
car accumulator. Called
battery, electric battery or just battery, the device that stores electrical energy using electrochemical methods and then returns almost entirely, this cycle can be repeated by a number of times. This is a secondary electric generator, ie a generator can not operate without electricity previously supplied him with what is called charging.
also often called battery as many times several of them are connected in series to increase the supply voltage. Thus, a car battery is made internally by 6 elements accumulator lead-acid type, each of which supplies electricity at a voltage of about 2 V, so that all the usual 12 V supply, or 12 items at 24 V for trucks.
The term battery in Castilian, called the non-rechargeable power generators. Both battery and battery are terms from the early days of electricity, in which several cells or cells - in the first case, one above another, "stacked", and the second, attached laterally, "on battery" , as is done today in order to increase the magnitude of electrical phenomena and to study them systematically. This explanation suggests that either serve to any names, but the custom has fixed the distinction. Contents
Operating Principles of Operation battery is based essentially on some sort of reversible process, ie a process whose components are not consumed or lost result, but merely transformed into another, which in turn can return to the state first in the right circumstances. These circumstances are, in the case of batteries, the closure of the external circuit during the discharge process and the implementation of a stream, just outside during the load.
turns out that such processes are quite common, oddly enough, in the relations between the chemicals and electricity during the process called electrolysis , and voltage generators or batteries . The nineteenth century researchers devoted many efforts to observe and investigate this phenomenon, which was named polarization.
An accumulator is thus a device that takes the polarization achievable limits, and generally consists of two electrodes the same or different material, immersed in an electrolyte . History
Alessandro Volta announced his invention of the stack to the Royal London Society, March 20 of 1800. Johann Wilhelm Ritter
built his electric battery 1803. Like many other that followed, was a theoretical and experimental prototype, with no possible practical application.
In 1860 , Gaston Plante developed the first model of lead-acid battery with pretensions to be a usable device, which was only very relatively, so it was not successful. In the late nineteenth century, however, the electricity was rapidly becoming everyday items, and when I planted again to publicly explain the features of your store, in 1879 , had a better reception, so it began to be manufactured and used almost immediately, beginning an intense and ongoing process of development to perfect it and ignore its deficiencies, a process that continues today.
Thomas Alva Edison invented in 1900 , another type of battery with electrodes of iron and nickel, whose electrolyte is potassium hydroxide (KOH). First commercialized in 1908 , and are the basis of current models alkaline rechargeable or not.
Also by 1900, in Sweden, Berg invented Junger and Ni-Cd battery, which uses cadmium anodes instead of iron, being very similar to that of ferronickel in other characteristics.
battery types
As their size and other characteristics external concerns, consult this list , since many of them are common to batteries and accumulators and are standardized.
As far as concerns their internal nature, are commonly found in trade accumulators of the following types:
lead accumulator is composed of two electrodes lead, so that when the device is downloaded , is in the form of lead sulfate (PbSO4 II) embedded in a matrix of metallic lead (Pb), the electrolyte is a solution of sulfuric acid . This type of battery is still used even in many applications, including in the car. Its operation is as follows:
During the initial charging, lead sulfate (II) is reduced to lead metal at the negative pole, while the anode forms lead oxide (IV) (Pb O2) . Therefore, it is a dismutation process . No hydrogen is released, since the reduction of protons to elemental hydrogen is kinetically hindered at a lead surface, a favorable characteristic is reinforced by including the small amounts of silver electrodes. Hydrogen evolution would cause slow degradation of the electrode, helping it crumble mechanically parts of it, irreversible changes that shorten the battery service life.
During discharge processes are reversed loading. Lead oxide (IV) is reduced to lead sulfate (II), while the elemental lead is oxidized to sulfate also give lead (II). Exploit the electrons exchanged in the form of electrical current through an external circuit. It is, therefore, of a switch. The term commences elementary processes are:
PbO2 + 2 H2SO4 + 2 e--> 2 H2O + SO42-
PbSO4 + Pb + SO42--> PbSO4 + 2 e-
low discharge in the concentration of sulfuric acid because it creates lead sulphate and increases the amount of water released in the reaction. As concentrated sulfuric acid has a density greater than the dilute sulfuric acid, the acid density can be an indicator for charging status of the device.
However, this process can be repeated indefinitely, because when the lead sulfate crystals form very large, and not respond well to the processes outlined, so you lose the essential characteristic of reversibility. We then say that the battery is sulfated and must be replaced by a new one.
The batteries of this type sold today use a paste electrolyte, which does not evaporate and does a lot more comfortable and safer to use.
Alkaline Battery
ferronickel also called, the electrodes are shaped steel plates with honeycomb mesh inserts nickel oxide (NiO), which form the positive electrode, and ferrous oxide (FeO), the negative, being formed the electrolyte solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH). During the load is an anodic oxidation process and a cathodic reduction , becoming the nickel oxide in nickel and ferrous oxide in metallic iron. This reaction occurs in reverse during unloading.
In 1866, George Leclanché invented in France the "stack dry "(Zinc-Manganese Dioxide) system that still dominates the world market for primary batteries. Alkaline batteries (for "high power" or "long life") are similar to those of Leclanché, but instead of ammonium chloride, lead chloride, sodium or potassium. They last longer because zinc is not exposed to an acidic environment such as ammonium ions that cause the conventional battery. As the ions move more easily through the electrolyte, produces more power and a more stable flow.
The higher cost stems from the difficulty of sealing the cell against leakage of hydroxide. Almost all are shielded, which prevents the shedding of constituents. However, this shield does not have unlimited time. Alkaline dry cells are similar to common dry cells, with the following exceptions:
the electrolyte is basic (alkaline), because it contains KOH
the inner surface of the container of Zn is rough, this provides a larger contact area.
Alkaline batteries have a longer shelf life than the common dry cells to better withstand constant use.
voltage alkaline battery is close to 1.5 v. During unloading, the reactions in the alkaline dry cell are:
Anode: Zn (S) + 2 OH-(aq) Zn (OH) 2 (s) +2 e-
Cathode: 2 MnO2 (S) + 2 H2 O (l) + 2 e- 2MnO (OH) (s) + 2 OH-(ac)
Global: Zn (s) +2 MnO2 (s) 2H2O (l) Zn (OH) 2 (aq) + 2MnO (OH) (s)
The anode is made of a paste of zinc amalgamated with mercury (total 1%), carbon or graphite.
devices are used for complex and energy intensive. In versions 1.5 volt, 6 volt and 12 volts are used, for example, remote controls (remote control) and alarms.
alkaline manganese batteries with mercury content of around 0.1% of its total weight is an enhanced version of the previous stack, which has replaced the chloride ion conductor ammonium hydroxide Potassium (hence the name of alkaline). The battery container is steel, and disposition of zinc and manganese oxide (IV) is the opposite, placing the zinc powder now in the middle. The amount of mercury used to regulate the discharge is higher. This gives more time, more constancy in time and better performance. By contrast, the price is higher. It also provides an electromotive force of 1.5 V. It is used in most consumer devices such as portable recorders, motorized toys, electronic flashes.
The amalgamated zinc anode is the cathode material is a polarizer that is based on manganese dioxide, mercuric oxide intimately mixed with graphite, and in rare cases Ag2O silver oxide (the latter two are of use expensive, hazardous and toxic), to reduce its electrical resistivity. The electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH), which presents a very low internal resistance, allowing not to take internal discharges and energy can be stored for a long time. This electrolyte in the battery business is hardened gelatin or cellulose derivatives.
This type of battery is manufactured in two ways. In one, the anode consists of a corrugated zinc strip, spirally wound from 0.051 to 0.13 mm in thickness, which is Amalgam after assembly. Two strips absorbent paper interdevanadas alkali resistant paper strip with zinc, zinc so that it extends to the top and bottom paper. The anode is insulated from the metal box with a polystyrene sleeve. The top of the stack is made of copper and makes contact with the strip of zinc to form the negative terminal of the battery. The battery is sealed with a grommet or eyelet made of neoprene. The battery casing is chemically inert to the ingredients and form the positive electrode.
Alkaline Zinc 14% (anode) Toys, tape players, cameras, recorders
22% manganese dioxide (cathode)
Coal: 2%
Mercury 0.5 to 1% (anode)
potassium hydroxide (electrolyte)
42% plastic and sheet
contains an alkaline compound called potassium hydroxide. Its duration is six times greater than that of zinc-carbon. It is composed of manganese dioxide, potassium hydroxide, zinc paste amalgamated with Mercury (total 1%), carbon or graphite. According to the European Directive of March 18, 1991, these batteries can not exceed the amount of 0.025% mercury.
This type of battery has some cons:
An alkaline battery can contaminate 175,000 liters of water, which becomes the average water consumption of all the lives of six people.
An ordinary battery, also called zinc-carbon, can contaminate 3,000 liters of water.
nasal septum perforations.
Zinc, Manganese, Bismuth, Copper and Silver: These are toxic substances that produce various alterations in human health. Zinc, Manganese and Copper are essential for life, in minute amounts, toxic in high doses. Bismuth and Silver are not essential for life.
Nickel Hydride Batteries (Ni-H)
utilize a hydroxide anode and cathode nickel alloy metal-hydride batteries. Each cell of Ni-H can provide a voltage of 1.2 V and a capacity between 0.8 and 2.3 Ah. Its energy density reaches 80 Wh / kg. These batteries are affected by the so-called memory effect, which is limited in each charging voltage or the capacity (because of a long, high temperature or high current), precluding the use of all its energy.
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries (Ni-Cd)
They use a nickel hydroxide anode and cathode of a compound of cadmium . The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide . This configuration of materials can recharge the battery once it is exhausted, for reuse. Each NiCd cell can provide a voltage of 1.2 V and a capacity between 0.5 and 2.3 Ah. No However, its energy density is only 50 Wh / kg, which means they have to be recharged every so often. They are also affected by memory effect.
Lithium-Ion Battery (Li-ion) batteries
The Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) use a lithium anode and a cathode Ion. Its development is more recent, and can reach densities of around 115 Wh / kg. Also, do not suffer from memory effect .
Lithium Polymer Batteries (Li-Poly)
are a variation of Lithium-Ion Battery (Li-ion) . Its characteristics are very similar, but allow higher energy density and a significantly higher discharge rate.
Fuel Cells
The fuel cell is not an accumulator itself, although it converts chemical energy into electricity and is rechargeable. Works with hydrogen . (Other fuels such as methane or Methanol are processed prior to hydrogen).
high capacity condenser
Although high-capacity capacitors electrochemical batteries are not strictly speaking, are now getting enough capacity large (several farads, F) so that they can be used as a battery when the power supplied are small.
parameters of a battery voltage
The or potential (in volts ) is the first parameter to consider, as is what usually determines whether the accumulator should use to which it is intended. Is fixed by the reduction potential of redox couple used, generally between 1 V and 4 V per cell.
The current that can supply the item, as ampere (A), is the second factor. Is particularly important in some cases the maximum current obtainable; p. eg., starter motors for cars require brutal efforts of the battery when put into operation (tens of A), so you must act for a short time.
electrical capacity is measured in practice by reference to the time of loading and discharge in Ah. SI unit is the coulomb (C).
1 Ah = 1000 mAh = 3600 C, 1 C = 1 Ah/3600 = 0.278 mAh.
Note, however, that, when you get indications on the body of batteries or packs, as Please charge at C/10 for 12 hours the letter C does not refer to Coulomb, but maximum load may receive the battery, so that in the previous case, if they were battery capacity 1200 mAh, you should apply a charging current = 120 mA during 1200-1210 the number of hours indicated.
The stored energy is usually measured in Wh ( watt-hour), the SI unit is the joule (unit) .
1 Wh = 3600 J = 3.6 kJ 1 J = 0.278 mWh
The resistance of the batteries is much lower than that of the batteries, allowing them to supply loads more intense than the latter, especially as transient. For example, the internal resistance of a lead-acid battery is of 0.006 ohm , and other Ni-Cd, from 0.009 ohm.
Finally, another important feature of a battery is its mass, ie, weighing, and the relationship between it and the electrical capacity (Ah / kg) or energy (Wh / kg) that can restore. In some cases it may also occupy a significant volume (m3 or liters).
The yield is the percentage ratio between the power received in the process of loading and delivery to the battery during discharge. The lead-acid battery is rated at over 90%.
batteries as contaminants
As seen, the batteries contain heavy metals and chemicals, many of them harmful environment. It is very important not to throw them away (in most countries this is not allowed) and take them to a recycling center. Currently, most vendors and specialty shops are also in charge of the batteries.
In Mexico, the release of mercury in batteries has occurred as a result of using three types of batteries: the oxide of mercury, the C-Zn and alkaline. In the first type, the metal content is 33% and were used in presentation and in other button sizes, from 1955. Theoretically, it ceased production in 1995, although there are sources that indicate that this process continues in Asia and distributed in the international market. For the second and third types of batteries, it is known that for several decades before 1990, they added mercury (0.5 to 1.2%) for best performance, with the highest alkaline content, also containing coal is sometimes contaminated with this metal naturally. In 1999, the INE requested an analysis of samples from three different brands of AA batteries normally consumed in Mexico, of which two were of Asian origin (of C-Zn) and alkaline European origin. The results were as follows: for those of Asian origin, the values \u200b\u200bwere between 0.18 mg / kg and 6.42 mg / kg, in terms of European origin the result was 0.66 mg / kg, and these amounts, equivalent to parts per million, does not exceed the limits of 0.025% under the Protocol on heavy metals taken in 1998 in Aarhus, Denmark, by members of the Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The previous sample was an isolated incident and it would be in the future to further analyze the mercury content in the largest possible number of brands. According to calculations presented in Table 10, an estimated 1,232 tons have been released over the past 43 years. In Mexico, the other sources of mercury are industry chlorine / soda, which is used in the process, and also products such as thermometers, various types of switches and fluorescent lamps. According to official information and is not removed mercury in Mexico, although data on imports amounting to 130 tonnes in the last three years. Mercury is a local and global pollutant par excellence. Environmental chemistry for this toxic metal is very complex, given its properties, it evaporates at room temperature, the atoms travel far, to be deposited in bodies of water are transformed into organic mercury (methyl mercury) for aerobic and anaerobic mechanisms , this is how it becomes contaminated, among others, seafood. Another form of mercury poisoning is inhalation of vapors from the mercury in its metallic form indoors. Methyl mercury can cross the placenta, accumulate and cause damage to the brain and tissues of infants who are particularly sensitive to this substance. There may also be exposed to mercury through breast milk, in this case, the effects can cause developmental problems, delays in walking, speech or mental lack of coordination, blindness and seizures. In adults, chronic exposure through ingestion of contaminated food, usually fish, can cause personality changes, loss of vision, memory or coordination, deafness, or problems in the kidneys and lungs. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, for its acronym in English) of the World Health Organization (WHO) considers to methyl mercury and its compounds as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). Methyl mercury, which is the most toxic, accumulates in fish tissue, the larger specimens and older tend to concentrate higher levels of mercury.
Manganese: As the most used battery types are alkaline and C-Zn (approximately 76% of total batteries), the oxide manganese content in them is the pollutant that increased volume has been released into the environment over the past four decades, which is about 145.917 tons (Table 10). Regarding adverse effects on human health caused by this substance, several studies suggest serious neurological effects from oral exposure to manganese. For example, a study by the WHO reports that in 1981 poisoning was reported in a community in Japan, due to near a water well were buried around 400 pieces of batteries at a distance of approximately two meters, causing 16 cases of poisoning, three were fatal (including suicide). Manganese levels detected in water from that well was 14 milligrams per liter, while in other two wells reached levels 8 and 11 milligrams per liter. Community subjects exhibited disorders of psychological and neurological related to intoxication.
Monday, February 25, 2008
List Of Pokemon The Original 151
1.
INTRODUCTION 2. Transformation NATURAL ENERGY
3. SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTION DIRECT
1 flat plate collectors
2 Collectors concentration
3 Solar Ovens
4 solar receivers
5 solar Cooling
4. PHOTOVOLTAIC ELECTRICITY
5. SOLAR ENERGY IN SPACE
6. STORAGE DEVICES
INTRODUCTION
Sun the star by the gravitational pull of its mass, dominates the planetary system that includes the earth. By the radiation of electromagnetic energy, directly or indirectly provides the energy that sustains life on Earth, because all foods and fuels are derived ultimately from plants using energy from sunlight
solar energy, radiant energy produced in the Sun as a result of nuclear fusion reactions. Reaches the Earth through space in quanta of energy called photons (see electromagnetic radiation, photons), which interact with the atmosphere and land surface. The intensity solar radiation at the outer edge of the atmosphere, considering that the Earth is at its average distance from the sun, called solar constant and its average value is 1.37 × 106 erg/s/cm2, or about 2 cal/min/cm2.
However, this amount is not constant, since it seems to vary by 0.2% over a period of 30 years. The intensity of actual power available at Earth's surface is less than the solar constant due to absorption and scattering of radiation that causes the interaction of photons with the atmosphere.
This solar house in Corrales (New Mexico, United States) a flat-plate solar collector (bottom right) provides power to heat water pumped through the mill. Water is stored in large drums.
The intensity of solar energy available at a given point on Earth depends on a complicated but predictable, the day of the year, time and latitude. In addition, the amount of solar energy can be collected depends on the orientation of the receiver.
NATURAL TRANSFORMATION OF THE SOLAR ENERGY
natural collection of solar energy is produced in the atmosphere, oceans and plants on Earth. The interactions of the sun's energy, oceans and atmosphere, for example, produce winds, used for centuries to turn mills. Modern systems use wind power propellers strong, lightweight, weatherproof and aerodynamic design that, when attached to generators, produce electricity for local and specialist or to feed the grid in a region or community.
Nearly 30% of solar energy reaching the outer edge of the atmosphere is consumed in the water cycle, producing rain and potential energy of the mountain streams and rivers. The energy generated by these moving water passing through modern turbines is called hydropower. See also Dam, Weather, Water supply. Thanks to
process of photosynthesis, solar energy contributes to the growth of plant life (biomass), together with wood and fossil fuels from the geological point of view derived from ancient plants, can be used as fuel. Other fuels such as alcohol and methane can also be extracted from biomass.
addition, the oceans are a natural type of solar energy collection. As a result of its absorption by the oceans and ocean currents, temperature gradients occur. In some places, these vertical variations reach 20 ° C over distances of several hundred meters. When large masses of different temperatures, the thermodynamic principle predict that you can create a power generating cycle that extracts energy from the mass with higher temperature and transfer an amount to the mass with lower temperature (see thermodynamics). The difference between these energies manifests itself as mechanical energy (to drive a turbine, for example), you can connect a generator to produce electricity. These systems, called systems of ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), require huge energy exchangers and other devices in the ocean to produce power on the order of megawatts. See also Ocean and Oceanography.
DIRECT ENERGY COLLECTION SOLAR
The active solar heating systems include equipment that uses energy from the sun to heat and cool structures. Passive systems involve design of structures that use solar energy for cooling and heating. For example, in this house, a space solar collector used in winter when the blinds are open and the refrigerator or cooler in summer when closed. Thick concrete walls allow for fluctuations in temperature because they absorb heat in winter and outside in summer. Water tanks provide a thermal mass to store heat during the day and release it at night.
The direct collection of solar energy requires artificial devices called solar collectors designed to collect energy, often after concentrating the rays of the sun's energy, once collected, is used in thermal processes or photoelectric or photovoltaic. In thermal processes, solar energy is used to heat a gas or a liquid which is then stored or distributed. In the photovoltaic process, solar energy is converted into electricity without any intermediate mechanical device. Solar collectors fall into two main types: flat plate and concentrating.
flat plate collectors
In thermal processes collectors flat plate solar radiation intercepted an absorber plate by passing the so-called carrier fluid. This, in liquid or gaseous form is heated to cross the channel by heat transfer from the absorber plate (see Heat, Heat Transfer). The energy transfer from the carrier fluid, divided by the solar energy striking the collector and expressed as a percentage, is called the collector instantaneous efficiency. Flat plate collectors generally have one or more transparent cover plates to try to minimize heat loss from the absorber plate in an effort to maximize efficiency. Are capable of heating carrier fluids up to 82 ° C and get between 40 and 80% efficiency.
flat plate collectors have been used effectively for heating water and heating. Typical systems used for home-room fixed collectors mounted on the roof. In the northern hemisphere are oriented towards the south and in the southern hemisphere toward the North. The optimum angle for mounting the collector depends on latitude. In general, for systems that are used throughout the year, such as producing hot water collectors are inclined (to the horizontal plane) at an angle equal to 15 ° latitude and are oriented 20 ° or 20 ° S latitude N. latitude
addition
plate collectors flat, the typical systems of heating and hot water are formed by circulating pumps, temperature sensors, automatic controllers to activate the pump and a storage device. The fluid can be both air and liquid (water or water mixed with antifreeze), while bedrock or an insulated tank used as a means of storing energy.
The collector plates using the sun's energy to heat a fluid carrier, in turn, provides heat for use in a home. The carrier fluid, water in this case, flows through copper pipes in the solar collector during the process some of the energy absorbed solar. Then moves to a heat exchanger where it heats the water to be used at home. Finally, a bomb once again leads the fluid to the solar collector to repeat the cycle. Collectors
concentration
For applications such as air conditioning and central power generation and heat to meet industry needs large, flat plate collectors do not provide, in general, fluids with temperatures high enough to be effective . Can be used in a first phase, and then the fluid is treated with conventional means of heating. Alternatively, you can use concentrating collectors more complex and costly. These are devices that reflect and concentrate solar energy incident on a small receiving area. As a result of this concentration, the intensity of solar energy and temperature increases of receptor (called 'white') can come to several hundreds or even thousands of degrees Celsius. Concentrators must move to follow the sun if they are to operate effectively, the devices used for this are called heliostats.
solar ovens solar ovens are an important application of high temperature hubs. The largest, located in Odeillo in the French Pyrenees, has 9,600 reflectors with a total surface of about 1,900 m2 to produce temperatures of 4,000 ° C. These ovens are ideal for research, for example, materials research, which require high temperatures in environments free of pollutants.
central Receivers
centralized generation of electricity from solar energy is under development. The concept of central receiver or power tower, an array of reflectors mounted on computer-controlled heliostats reflect and concentrate the sun's rays on a water boiler located on the tower. The generated steam cycles can be used in conventional power plants and generate electricity.
Solar cooling
cold may occur with the use of solar energy as a source of heat in an absorption cooling cycle (see Refrigeration). One of the standard system components by absorption cooling, called generator, you need a heat source. Since, in general, require temperatures above 150 ° C for absorbing devices work effectively, concentrating collectors are more suitable than flat plate.
PHOTOVOLTAIC ELECTRICITY In a photovoltaic cell, light excites electrons between layers of silicon semiconductor materials. This produces electrical currents.
solar cells made from thin wafers of silicon, gallium arsenide or other semiconductor material in the crystalline state, convert radiation directly into electricity. Cells are now available with conversion efficiencies greater than 30%. Through the connection of many of these cells into modules, the cost of photovoltaic electricity has been greatly reduced. The current use of solar cells is limited to low power devices, remote maintenance free, as buoys and spacecraft equipment.
SOLAR ENERGY IN THE SPACE
A futuristic project proposed to produce large-scale power to situate solar modules in orbit around the Earth. They concentrated energy of sunlight become microwave antennas to be issued to land for conversion into electrical energy. To produce as much power as five large nuclear power plants (one billion watts each) would have to be assembled in orbit several square kilometers of collectors, with a weight of more than 4000 t, would need an antenna on the ground of 8 m in diameter. It could build smaller systems for islands remote, but the economy of scale advantages for a single high-capacity system (see Astronautics).
ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES FOR SOLAR
Due to the intermittent nature of solar radiation as energy source during periods of low demand the excess is stored solar energy to cover needs when availability is insufficient. In addition to simple storage systems such as water and rock, can be used, particularly in refrigeration applications, more compact devices that rely on phase changes characteristic of eutectic salts (salts that melt at low temperatures). The batteries can be used to store excess electricity produced by wind or photovoltaic devices (see Drums). A global concept is to deliver power over existing networks and use these as additional sources when solar availability is insufficient. However, the economy and reliability of this project sets limits for this alternative.
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